Principles and theories of learning MCQ Quiz in தமிழ் - Objective Question with Answer for Principles and theories of learning - இலவச PDF ஐப் பதிவிறக்கவும்

The correct answer is 'A is true, but R is false.'

Key Points

• Operant Conditioning Theory:
  • Operant conditioning is a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
  • Developed by B.F. Skinner, this theory emphasizes that behaviors are more likely to be repeated when they are followed by positive reinforcement (rewards) and less likely to be repeated when followed by negative reinforcement or punishment.
  • This theory is applied in various fields such as education, psychology, and animal training.
• Difference between Operant and Classical Conditioning:
  • Operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors and the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior.
  • Classical conditioning, on the other hand, deals with the association of involuntary, reflexive responses with specific stimuli.
  • In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

Social cohesion refers to the extent of connectedness and solidarity among groups in society. It identifies two main dimensions: the sense of belonging of a community and the relationships among members within the community itself.

Social change is the way human interactions and relationships transform cultural and social institutions over time, having a profound impact on society. 

socialization: Interacting with friends and family, being told to obey rules, being rewarded for doing chores, and being taught how to behave in public places are all examples of socialization that enable a person to function within his or her culture.

Social adjustment is an effort made by an individual to cope with the standards, values, and needs of a society in order to be accepted. It can be defined as a psychological process. It involves coping with new standards and values.

Hence, Teaching how to respect elders and talk to them is an example of socialization.

Important Points

laws/principles of learning of Thorndike 

• Edward Thorndike developed the first three laws of learning: readiness, exercise, and effect.
• He set also the law of effect which means that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be avoided.

1. Law of exercise
   • The law of exercise stated that behavior is more strongly established through frequent connections of stimulus and response
   • The law of exercise or principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered.
   • The law implies that one learns by doing and one cannot learn a skill, for instance, by watching others.
2. Law of effect

• The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike states that responses closely followed by satisfaction will become firmly attached to the situation and therefore more likely to reoccur when the situation is repeated.
• Any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus is paired with a previously neutral stimulus.
•  The classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. 

Key Points

Principle of associative shifting

• The law of associative shifting describes a process whereby a response may shift from one stimulus to another.
•  Learning consists of the formation of connections between stimuli and responses, and such connections are created whenever a response is followed by a satisfier/reward.
•  It is possible to shift any response from occurring with one stimulus to occurring with another stimulus.
• Associative shift maintains that a response is first made to situation A, then to AB, and then finally to B, thus shifting response from one condition to another by associating it with that condition

Therefore, the Principle of associative shifting principles of learning of Thorndike anticipated the classical conditioning paradigm of Pavlov.

Additional Information

Principle of prepotency of elements

• The law of prepotency of elements states that people tend to respond more to significant aspects of a problem or stimulus situation and respond less to irrelevant aspects
• They do that by recognizing a shape relates more to its relationship between its sides, less to color or position.
•  The individual reacts selectively to the important or essential in the situation and neglects the other features or elements which may be irrelevant or non-essential. 

Experiential learning- Kolb

• Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1984)
• Experiential learning is the process of learning through experience.
• It is learning through reflection on doing.
• Hands-on learning can be a form of experiential learning but does not necessarily involve students reflecting on their product.
• The process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.
• Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience.

Concept mapping - Joseph D. Novak

• Concept mapping was invented by Joseph D. Novak.
• A concept map is a visual organization and representation of knowledge.
• It shows concepts and ideas and the relationships among them.
• One creates a concept map by writing keywords and then drawing arrows between the ideas that are related.

Need-reduction theory of learning - Clark Hull 

• The theory was created by behaviorist Clark Hull.
• The drive reduction theory of motivation is a way to explain behavior, learning, and motivation.
•  According to the theory, the reduction of drives is the primary force behind motivation.
• The goal of motivating behavior is a reduction of a drive state.
• It is assumed that all motivated behavior arises from drives, stemming from a disruption in homeostasis and that responses that lead to a reduction of those drives tend to be reinforced or strengthened.

Sign learning - Tolman

• Sign learning has been called purposive behaviorism.
• It is often considered the bridge between behaviorism and cognitive theory.
• According to Tolman's theory of sign learning, an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.
• Tolman believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, and changing conditions, and they strive toward goals.
• Tolman is virtually the only behaviorist who found the stimulus-response theory unacceptable because reinforcement was not necessary for learning to occur.

S - R bond learning- Thorndike

• American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike
• Connectionism is the philosophy of Edward Thorndike.
• Learning is a product of stimulus and response.
• A stimulus is something that causes a reaction, while a response is a reaction to a stimulus.
• The connection between the two is called an S-R bond, or stimulus-response bond.
• Stimulus-response (S-R) theories are central to the principles of conditioning.
• They are based on the assumption that human behavior is learned.

Operant conditioning- Skinner

• Operant conditioning is sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning.
• It is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
• Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence, whether negative or positive, for that behavior
• Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
• It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning. 

Learning occurs when experience (including practice) causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior, or potential for behavior. The change may be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or incorrect, and conscious or unconscious. To qualify as learning, this change must be brought about by experience-by the interaction of a person with his or her environment. Changes simply caused by maturation, such as growing taller or turning gray, do not qualify as learning. Temporary changes resulting from illness, fatigue, drugs, or hunger are also excluded from a general definition of learning.

There are four types of learning processes: contiguity, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning

• Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
• Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
• Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior: Natural operants, Reinforcement, and Punishment.
  1. Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
  2. Reinforcement: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Whenever you see a behavior persisting or increasing over time, you can assume the consequences of that behavior are reinforcers for the individual involved. The reinforcement process can be diagrammed as follows:
     
  • Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. The process of reinforcement (positive or negative) always involves
    strengthening behavior.
    1. Positive Reinforcement: 

       • When the consequence that strengthens a behavior is the presentation (addition) of a new stimulus, the situation is defined as positive reinforcement.

         It occurs when the behavior or response produces a new stimulus, so positive reinforcement is the contingent presentation of a stimulus following a response. behavior and response mean the same thing. Examples of positive reinforcement include the occurrence of food pellets when a pigeon pecks on the red key, compliments when you wear a new outfit, or cheers and laughter from classmates when a student falls out of his chair.

    2. Negative Reinforcement: 
       • When the consequence that strengthens a behavior is the removal (subtraction) of a stimulus, the process is called negative reinforcement.
       • Negative reinforcement is the contingent removal of an aversive (unpleasant)stimulus right after a response that increases the future rate of the response.
       • If a particular action leads to avoiding or escaping an aversive situation, the action is likely to be repeated in a similar situation. A common example is the car seatbelt buzzer. As soon as you put on your seatbelt, the irritating buzzer stops. You are likely to repeat this “buckling up” action in the future (so the process is reinforcement) because the response removed an aversive buzzing stimulus (so the kind of reinforcement is negative).
• Punishment: Punishment, on the other hand, involves decreasing or suppressing behavior. A behavior followed by a punisher is less likely to be repeated in similar situations in the future. Again, it is the effect that defines a consequence as punishment, and different people have different perceptions of what is punishing. One student may find suspension from school punishing, whereas another student wouldn’t mind the break at all. The process of punishment is diagrammed as follows:

EXTINCTION: 

• In classical conditioning, the CR is extinguished (disappears) when the CS appears, but the US does not follow (sound, but no food).
• In operant conditioning, a person or an animal will not persist in a certain behavior if the usual reinforcer is withheld long enough. The behavior will eventually be extinguished (stop). For example, if you repeatedly e-mail a professor but never get a reply, you may give up. 
• Removal of reinforcement altogether leads to extinction. The process may take a while, however, as you know if you have tried to extinguish a child’s tantrums by withholding your attention. Often the child wins—because you give up ignoring her—and instead of extinction, intermittent reinforcement occurs. This, of course, may encourage even more persistent tantrums in the future.

Hence,

The correct answer is - Intra Psychological function comes first then Inter Psychological.

Key Points

• Intra Psychological function comes first then Inter Psychological.
  • According to Vygotsky, Inter Psychological functions, which are social interactions, come first.
  • These functions are then internalized to become Intra Psychological functions.
  • This process emphasizes the importance of social interactions in the development of higher mental functions.

Additional Information

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
  • Refers to the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with help.
  • Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and instruction in learning within the ZPD.
• Scaffolding
  • A technique used to support learning by providing appropriate assistance.
  • As the learner becomes more proficient, the support is gradually removed.
• Social Constructivism
  • Vygotsky’s theory is a foundation for social constructivism, which emphasizes learning as a socially mediated activity.
  • Knowledge is co-constructed through interaction with others.

Key Points 

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) was a German psychologist who emigrated to the United States to flee Hitler's Nazi regime. With a physics and mathematics background, Lewin applied field theory concepts to psychology.

 Field theory postulated that human functioning occurs within a physical and social context, which Lewin called a psychological field or the living space.

He is known as a social psychologist who made significant contributions to social psychology, organizational psychology, and change management.

The main components of Lewin’s Theory are as follows:

Life space: Lewin's concept of life space refers to an individual's subjective perception of their environment, including their perceptions of themselves, others, and their situation. The living space can influence an individual's behaviour and motivation.

Valence: Valence refers to an individual's subjective evaluation of a particular goal or outcome. It can be positive or negative and influence an individual's motivation to pursue or avoid a particular goal.

Barriers refer to any obstacles or challenges that may prevent an individual from achieving a particular goal. These barriers can be external or internal and may require effort or resources.

Motivation: Lewin believed that motivation was a key factor in determining behaviour. He identified two main types of motivation: positive motivation, which involves pursuing positive outcomes or rewards, and negative motivation, which involves avoiding negative outcomes or punishments.

Additional Information

• Cathexis, Equivalence beliefs, Field expectancy, and Field cognition modes are related to Sign Learning Theory by Edward Tolman.
• Similarity, proximity, continuity, and pragnanz are principles of perceptual organization in Gestalt psychology.
• Mental set, multiple responses, analogy, associative shifting laws given by Thorndike

Hence the correct answer is option 3.

The social cognitive theory of learning was propounded by Albert Bandura that emphasizes learning through observation from the environment, imitation and modelling. 

Key Points

•  This theory states that the child acquires learning from what he listens and observes and imitates the people close to him like parents, teachers, care-taker and older people.
• Observational learning is also known as vicarious learning which sets the base for social cognitive theory. 
• Imitation is a process when a child copies the behaviour of another person and learns responses through imitating.
• Children learn responses like facial expressions, way of talking, way of walking, and acting in a specified manner primarily through imitation. 
• For example, when a child watches the movie of the superhero, he imitates the iconic character, acts and behaves like a superhero. 
• The person who is observed and imitated is called a model. Children observe their models and try to copy their behavior in a specific manner.

Hence, it is concluded that responses are learned primarily through imitation reflects the social cognitive approach of learning.

Hint

• The classical conditioning theory of Pavlov reflects stimulus-response associations are permanent.
• The operant conditioning theory of Skinner reflects responses are affected by the consequences that follow.
• Reinforcement is responsible for some learners to display more motivation than others in learning.

Conditioning is a term used to describe the process by which a neutral stimulus gains the power to elicit a specific conditioned response. It is the process of modifying one’s behavior with the help of some preparation or training. 

The term reinforcement refers to the conditioned stimulus by the unconditioned stimulus. i.e., food following the bell. Without reinforcing the bell with food, no conditioning could be developed. This was reinforcement. This applies to student’s learning where the learning becomes effective when they are rewarded immediately. Quite often unconditioned stimulus reduces a drive or tension. So the term reinforcement also refers to a reduction in drives or tensions.

1. Discriminatory punishment learning: It is an alternative model that marks phobia as a choice behavior in which fear serves to punish an otherwise adaptive behavior. 
2. Non-reinforced learning: In this, target behavior is performed and in return, no response is provided or given.
3. Escape learning: In this, a child is trained on how to escape the discomfort of punishment by exhibiting the desired behavior. Hence, in order to escape from punishment, the student does homework.
4. Discriminatory learning: Our ability to discriminate between stimuli and giving responses accordingly is known as discrimination learning. For example, our ability to discriminate vehicles based on their horns.

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus is paired with a previously neutral stimulus.
•  The classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. 

Forward Conditioning

•  Occurs when the neutral stimulus (NS) appears just before and during the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
• In classical conditioning, the procedure consisting of presenting the conditioned stimulus before the unconditioned stimulus.

Backward Conditioning

• Backward conditioning is a behavior conditioning method in which the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented before a neutral stimulus (NS).
• This is a mostly ineffective method of conditioning because it doesn't allow for a clear association between the US and the NS.

Trace Conditioning

• Trace conditioning is a form of associative learning that can be induced by presenting a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) following each other but separated by a temporal gap.
• This gap distinguishes trace conditioning from classical delay conditioning, where the CS and US overlap.

Simultaneous Conditioning

• Simultaneous Conditioning is conditioning that occurs, frequently unintentionally or unplanned, at the same time as formal conditioning or training.

Therefore, Trace Conditioning  procedures Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is presented after the termination of the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)